Civil, Infrastructure & Environment

Definition of Water Consumption (W.C) It is the amount of water consumed by a community in one day. It is usual to express water consumption in litres/capita/day. Average water consumption is usually 150 to 600 lpcd. Classification of W.C according to Use No. Purpose Use Quantity 1 Domestic Sanitary, Drinking, Washing, Bathing, Cooking, Gardening etc. ~ 50-250 lpcd 2 Commercial and Industrial Markets, Office buildings, Dental clinics, Private Schools, Garages, Workshops etc. ~ 12.2 cube m/1000 sq. m of floor are…

The geological work performed by rivers may be placed under three heads: Erosion, Transport and Deposition. Rivers are active agents of erosion, especially in times of floods. They carry away much material and redeposit some part of it farther downstream, the rest being transported to the sea. Some matter goes into solution in the river water. The finer particles remain in suspension and the coarse roll along the bed during floods and hence perform the work by abrading the channel of river. The work of erosion, performed by rivers, results in the widening and deepening of their valleys during their course of development. Stages of youth, maturity and old age may be d…

1. Introduction Earthquakes are vibrations of the earth caused by the rupture and sudden movement of rocks that have been strained beyond their elastic limits. If a strained rock breaks, it then snaps into a new position and, in the process of rebounding, generates vibrations called seismic waves. Land waves produced by an earthquake have been reported with heights of more than 0.5 m and wave lengths of 8 m. The period between the passages of wave crests can be as much as 10 seconds. The vibrations can continue for as long as an hour before the wave dies out. 2. Focus and Epicenter Earthquake waves are propagated in all directions from the center of orig…